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doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-222340-2.50015-X, Vogel, G. W., Vogel, F., McAbee, R. S., & Thurmond, A. J. These researchers suggested that this temporary dissociation between the executive and perceptual areas is the cause of the characteristic bizarreness of dreams. Therefore, the objective of this article is to present a neuropsychological model of dreaming based on the most relevant clinical, experimental, psychophysiological, and neuropsychological research. (2002). Muzur, A., Pace-Schott, E. F., & Hobson, J. Madsen, P. L. (1993). To answer this question, it would be of great help to describe the phenomenology of dreaming. 99133). El sueo REM y el sistema lmbico: Aspectos biolgicos de las ensoaciones. Dreaming is considered a type of natural confabulation, similar to the one that occurs in patients with frontal lobe damage or schizophrenia. Limbic system function and dream content in university students. doi: 10.1038/383163a0. ), The Neuropsychology of Sleep and Dreaming (pp. Studies with positron emission computerized tomography (PET) have confirmed an increase in the brainstems metabolism (Braun et al., 1997), which generates electroencephalographic and metabolic activation, as well as stimulates of the posterior cortical and subcortical areas, especially the limbic-emotional system. Some authors have found that individuals with limbic hyper-function, as indexed by increased scores on the Limbic System Checklist, report more threatening dream content than others (Peterson, Henke, & Hayes, 2002). doi: 10.1176/ajp.146.9.1166, Schwartz, S., & Maquet, P. (2002). Developmental Neuropsychology, 4(3), 199230. luria alexander theory pass timetoast providentia shattered man romanovich aka It is well known that dreams are difficult to remember in wakefulness (Fisher, 1973). On the other hand, the recollection of dreams becomes interesting. Furthermore, there is a lack of control over the course of dream scenes, in which there are often violations of the laws of physics. Tllez, A. Such research has been examined here. (2014) found that in lucid dreaming, the active brain structures are the ones that malfunction in schizophrenia, and this is what prevents patients from becoming aware of their pathological state. neuropsychological cognitive approach Regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate in human sleep assessed by positron emission tomography. Neural correlates of insight in dreaming and psychosis. Dreaming is an active psychophysiological process that involves the presence of perceptible hallucinatory images during sleep (i.e., the visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, and linguistic kind), and cognitive activity with an emotional content of variable intensity that has been generated internally (Desseilles, Dang-Vu, Sterpeinch, & Schwartz, 2011). Nature, 437(7063), 12201222. Nature, 383(6596), 163166. Scientific American, 267(5), 126-133. doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican0992-126, Gibbs, W. W. M. Bertini (Eds. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 9(3), 157172. These behaviors are not directed towards an objective, because when a piece of meat or a mouse is placed near them, they do not seem to notice them, and they continue with their stereotypical behavior.

Neuropsychology; 120th anniversary of Lev Vygotsky, PDF: http://psychologyinrussia.com/volumes/pdf/2016_4/psychology_2016_4_7.pdf, Keywords: A. (1992). During REM sleep, there is an activation of the First Unit similar to what occurs in the state of wakefulness, which manifests itself with an increase of the electroencephalographic and metabolic activity in most regions of the brain. In I. Karacan (Ed.). (1985) reported a case of a patient with a lesion in the left temporo-occipital region due to a cerebrovascular accident. 8798). Luria (1974) mentioned that the confabulations of these patients are similar to the oneiric states in terms of the loss of the selectivity of mental processes, which is typical of the normal conscious life (Figure 1). Doricchi and Violani (1992) and Murri et al. This phenomenon has been called oneiric behavior (Jouvet et al., 1981). Universidad Autnoma de Nuevo Len (UANL), Monterrey, Mexico. Variations of heart rate during sleep as a function of the sleep cycle.

Science, 118, 273274. Scientific American, 272(3), 102-110. doi: 10.1038/scientificamerican0395-100, Goldberg, E. Using the same technique, Maquet et al. The social brain? Lurias model of the functional units of the brain and the neuropsychology of dreaming, Universidad Autnoma de Nuevo Len (UANL), Monterrey, Mexico, http://psychologyinrussia.com/volumes/pdf/2016_4/psychology_2016_4_7.pdf. Consciousness and Cognition, 20(4), 998 1008. doi: 10.1016/j.concog.2010.10.005, Doricchi, F., & Violani, C. (1992). That is the reason why Hobson and Stickgold (1995) stated that dreaming represents a model for explaining schizophrenia. Jouvet, M., Sastre, J. P., & Sakai, K. (1981). Several studies agree that lesions in the areas involved in visuospatial processing and representation in Unit 2, result in a reduction in, or elimination of, dreaming, a neuropsychological syndrome called anoneria. (1981) cats and is the result of the activation of Units 1, 2, and especially L, along with the simultaneous inhibition of the prefrontal lobe. This disorder is named REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD) and is characterized by the absence of the muscle paralysis which is customary during this stage of sleep, as a result of neurological related disorders. Lucid dreaming: Psychophysiological studies of consciousness during REM sleep. Jouvet et al. Abbott, A. Corsi-Cabrera et al. This can be interpreted as the result of a broad activation of Unit L without a cortical regulation (Buchsbaum et al., 1989). Heart rhythm control during sleep. Madsen (1993), using PET, found a drop in metabolism in the orbitofrontal region during REM sleep. That being said, it can be expected that, upon the activation of Unit L and a simultaneous decrease in the functioning of the prefrontal lobe during wakefulness, any person could behave in an uninhibited, impulsive or aggressive way, with difficulties in planning and self-regulation. This has been confirmed by experimental studies in animals and humans. Furthermore, the cats pupils display miosis and are covered by the nictitating membranes in same way as during REM sleep. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 14(3), 283288. doi: 10.1001/jama.1987. This is the result of an exceptional and sudden reactivation of the functioning of the dorsolateral and medial regions of the left prefrontal lobe and the temporoparietal region during REM sleep.

Sakai, F., Meyer, J. S., Karacan, I., Derman, S., & Yamamoto, M. (1980). Then, according to this hypothesis, a functional regression of cognitive activity in dreaming would imply incomplete functioning of the prefrontal lobe. Grnli, J., & Ursin, R. (2009). They suggest that every time we dream, there is an age regression in our psychophysiological functioning that causes us to have access to cognitive memories and strategies of that younger age. In fact, patients with depression show an increase in the metabolism of the dorsolateral region of the prefrontal lobe during REM sleep instead of the decrease which is observed in subjects without depression. The study also suggests that the confabulatory, bizarre, and impulsive nature of dreaming has a function in the cognitiveemotional homeostasis that aids proper brain function throughout the day. Hobson, J. Psychology in Russia. doi: 10.1126/science.281.5380.1185, Buchsbaum, M. S., Gillin, J. C., Wu, J., Hazlett, E., Sicotte, N., Dupont, R. E., Bunney, W. E. (1989). In general, the prefrontal lobe has been associated with selection functions, programming, and direction of behavioral planning, and impulse inhibition, as well as critical and reflexive thought (Cummings, 1995; Luria, 1974; Tsvetkova, 1996). Espaa: Siglo Veintiuno de Espaa. The conscious state paradigm: a neurocognitive approach to waking, sleeping, and dreaming. Normal human sleep: Regional cerebral hemodynamics. During dreaming, only the limbic region is activated, not the prefrontal; this fact produces a partial or total loss of memory of the oneiric content upon waking up in most people (Figure 1). En J. Velzquez (Ed. Anatomic and behavioral aspects of frontal-subcortical circuits. It can be inferred that any variable that increases limbic system activity during dreams can cause differences in emotional intensity, ranging from little emotional content to nightmares. Trastornos del Sueo: Diagnstico y Tratamiento. ), Temas Selectos de Neurociencias. Solms, M. (2000). Over the last few decades, interesting neuropsychological findings have started to surface about the relationship between the production and recollection of oneiric processes. We can conclude that dreams, as well as cognitive activity in wakefulness, come in various forms and contents. (1998). Tllez, A., Tllez, H., Tirado, H., Butcher, E., Railey, C., & Mendoza, M. E. Atencin, Aprendizaje y Memoria: Aspectos psicobiolgicos. Universidad Autnoma de Nuevo Len (UANL), Monterrey, Mexico, Snchez-Juregui, T. de J. Pea-Casanova, J., Roig-Rovira, T., Bermudez, A., & Tolosa-Sarro, E. Luria, A. R. (1974). In R. R. Bootzin, J. F. Kihlstrom, & D. L. Sctactor (Eds), Sleep and Cognition (pp. Studies with PET have found that the visual and auditory secondary areas are especially metabolically active during REM sleep, even above levels found in wakefulness (Braun et al., 1997; Madsen, 1993). The first approach toward psychobiological scientific research on the subject of dreaming occurred in 1953 when Aserinsky and Kleitman from the University of Chicago published their research, which stated that sleep with rapid eye movement, known as REM sleep, is frequently associated with dream recall.

(2002). We propose that the inhibition of prefrontal lobe functioning and the increase in activity of Unit L during REM sleep can have a cognitive and emotional homeostatic function that is important for good psychological performance during wakefulness. Years later, using PET with H2150 radioactive tracers, which are the most suitable for sleep research, Braun et al. This process allows for an increase in prefrontal lobe functioning and a decrease of limbic activity throughout the day, allowing better impulse control, planning, and self-regulation of behavior. In this way, the frontal lobe can carry out the functions of planning, execution, evaluation, attention, working memory, self-observation, better impulse control, and proper de-cision-making, allowing the individual to carry out a proper everyday life of social interaction. doi: 10.1002/ ana.410070514, Schenck, C. H., Bundlie, S. R., Patterson, A. L., & Mahowald, M. W. (1998). La Interpretacin de los Sueos. ajp.2008.08050721, Berger, R. J. What are the differences between the neuropsychological systems involved in the conscious processes of wakefulness, and the ones involved in dreaming? The Psychologist, 13(12), 618-619. doi: 10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00037-X, Cummings, J. L. (1995). It has been shown that lucid dreams are characterized by being able to freely remember the circumstances of waking life, to think clearly, and to act deliberately upon reflection, all while experiencing a dream world that seems vividly real (LaBerge, 1990). On the other hand, we find non-REM sleep characterized by a decrease in psychophysiological activity in general (Tllez, 1998). Psychophysiology, 21(3), 279289. (1992) found that frontal lesions do not affect dreaming, and some patients with frontal damage show an increased frequency of nightmares (Colace1, Salotti, & Ferreira, 2015), indirectly confirming the previously mentioned PET findings. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 165(8), 969977. Tsvetkova, L. S. (1996). During this phase, there is also an increase of electroencephalographic (Rechtschaffen & Kales, 1968) and cerebral metabolic activity, which is equal to or greater than that activity during wakefulness (Braun et al., 1997; Madsen, 1993; Maquet et al., 1996; Sakai, Meyer, Karacan, Derman, & Yamamoto, 1980). Biologa de los sueos y psicoanlisis. Other areas that are activated are the prefrontal medial region and the part that corresponds to the anterior region of the cingulate gyrus (Braun et al., 1997; Buchsbaum et al., 1989). Foulkes, D. (1982). Sleep, 35(7), 10171020. Making memories: Brain activity that predicts how well visual experience will be remembered. Gramtica de los Sueos. This also supports the hypothesis that Unit 3 is inactive and not necessary for the dreaming process. In J. S. Antrobus, & M. Bertini. A., & Stickgold, R. (1995). This evaluation agrees with the Motivational Theory of REM Sleep by Vogel (1979), which suggests that the function of the REM phase of dreaming is to decrease the impulse-motivated behavior during wakefulness. This finding also favors the hypothesis that frontal hypo-activity and limbic hyperactivity during REM sleep is really homeostatic, meaning that an increase in emotional and motivational activity works as an escape valve during the night without the logical, reasoned, and regulating activity of the prefrontal lobe, and that during the day, the limbic activity decreases, and the dorsolateral and orbital activity of the prefrontal lobe increases. Cognitive and emotional processes during dreaming: a neuroimaging view. These disturbances of the dreaming process are positively correlated with the appearance of some type of agnosia (Doricchi & Violani, 1992; Kerr & Foulkes, 1981; Murri et al., 1992; Pea-Casanova, Roig-Rovira, Bermudez, & Tolosa-Sarro1985). tb38127.x, Desseilles, M., Dang-Vu, T. T., Sterpenich, V., & Schwartz, S. (2011). Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 35(2), 193198. Vandekerckhove, M., & Cluydts, R. (2010). Reduction of dream bizarreness in impaired frontal cortex activity: A case report. (1981) make an interesting observation about animal behavior: Some cats that exhibited friendly behavior during daytime, showed a large incidence rate of aggressive behavior during REM sleep. (1995). As an example, the cases of patients with areas of epileptogenic activity in the limbic and paralimbic regions (Unit L), as in the case of the temporal lobe epilepsy, show a higher dream-recall frequency than patients with generalized tonic-clonic seizures and normal people (Epstein, 1984; Maquet et al., 1996). Mxico: Trillas. However, there are psychological processes that have received little attention in this field; among them is the process of dreaming. According to the model presented in this research, dreams are difficult to remember precisely because of the lack of working memory due to the relative deactivation of the prefrontal lobe. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 143(3), 221-231. doi: 10.1192/bjp.142.3.221, LaBerge, S. (1990). We can start by asking ourselves: Are dreaming, or dreams, a subject of study for neuropsychology? doi: 10.1016/j.smrv.2010.01.002, Vogel, G. W. (1979). (2014). However, there are psychological processes that have received little attention in this field, such as dreaming. ), Functions of Sleep (pp. Hobson and Stickgold (1995) found that during REM sleep, activation of the brainstem starts in the cholinergic system on a pontine level. A motivational function of REM sleep. Rechtschaffen, A., & Kales, A. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 769(1), 114. Meanwhile, Koukkou and Lehman (1983) have suggested that the cerebral state of an adult during dreaming corresponds functionally to the state of wakefulness during childhood, based on the similarity of the electroencephalographic activity of the different phases of sleep and in human development phases. Murri, L., Bonanni, E., Stefanini, A., Goldstein, L., Navona, C., & Denoth, F. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.1984.tb02935.x, 11, bld. Regularly occurring periods of eye motility and concomitant phenomena during sleep. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 14(4), 219226. This researcher proposes this theory in light of the observation that the selective deprivation of REM sleep in animals produces increases in aggressive, sexual, and food-seeking behaviors. doi: 10.1093/brain/120.7.1173, Brewer, J. According to Solms (2000), a renowned researcher in the neuropsychology of dreaming, these data support the essential idea proposed by Freud (1966), who maintained that one of the functions of dreaming was to allow instinctive impulses to emerge (limbic) without the censorship mechanism (dorsolateral and orbital prefrontal regions), thus allowing the attainment of repressed desires in a safe way. doi: 10.1038/4371220a, Aldredge, J. L., & Welch, A. J. On the contrary, experiments with cats that had the coeruleus alfa nucleus damaged the nucleus which seems to be responsible for the motor paralysis during REM sleep have caused these animals to translate their dreams into behavior, which is generally manifested in rapid behavioral sequences of, for instance, attack, rage, and grooming. [Basic sleep mechanisms]. Functional neuroanatomy of human rapid-eye-movement sleep and dreaming. Arthur W. Epstein (1984) says that dream formation involves a complex psychological activity that integrates memory, language, and thinking itself . Improvement of depression by REM sleep deprivation. (2003) found an absence of electroencephalographic correlation between the frontal and perceptual regions, as well as an increased correlation among the perceptual regions. This explanation describes how, during dreaming, an activation of the First Functional Unit occurs, comprising the reticular formation of the brainstem; this activates, in turn, the Second Functional Unit which is formed by the parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes and Unit L, which is comprised of the limbic system, as well as simultaneous hypo-functioning of the Third Functional Unit (frontal lobe). Such can be the case of people with schizophrenia (Gershon & Rieder, 1992; Goldberg, 2002) and major depression (Beck, 2008), and the 75% of criminals who exhibit low metabolism in the prefrontal lobe during wakefulness (Goldberg, 2002; Gibbs, 1995). Right hemispheric mediation of dream visualization: A case study. Barcelona: Editorial, Crtica. doi: 10.1016/0024-3205(89)90021-0. Brain and Language, 26(1), 6371. Barcelona: Fontanella. Dreaming: the functional state-shift hypothesis. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica, 88(148), 525. doi: 10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2011.10.009. Epilepsy Research, 98(1), 113. Stretton, J., & Thompson, P. J. (1968). RBD seems to be an early warning sign of Parkinsons disease, as some authors have noted that 65% of patients with this sleep disorder develop the disease within an average of nine years after RBD shows up (Abbott, 2005), indicating the degenerative etiology of this disorder. Obviously dreams have interested and captivated humanity since ancient times. doi: 10.1016/0013-4694(73)90176-4, Aserinsky, E., & Kleitman, N. (1953). (1989). Archives of General Psychiatry, 37(3), 247253. The activation of the supplementary motor area (Brodmanns area 6) and primary motor area (Brodmanns area 4) produces a programming and activation of a sequence of corporal movements during the oneiric content; but said activation remains on a representational level, because an inhibition occurs in the caudal region of locus coeruleus located in the pons of the brain stem (Unit 1) due to hyperpolarization of the motoneurons in the spinal cord. En F. Ostrosky, A. Ardila, & R. Chayo (Eds. Corsi-Cabrera, M., Mir, E., del-Ro-Portilla, Y., Prez-Garcia, E., Villanueva, Y., & Guevara, M. A.